Into Unscientific

be honest.

As a top international physicist.

Samuel Guzmit, who personally served as the person in charge of the Alsos project in the Manhattan Project, also known as the cross-sea nuclear bomb project, is undoubtedly rich in experience.

He had seen and even proposed many bizarre theories himself, some of which were even considered outrageous at the time.

For example, the concept of electron spin jointly proposed by him and Uhlenbeck back then was considered a typical example of "heresy".

This theory was proposed in 1925. At that time, electrons were always regarded as point charges.

So once the concept of spin proposed by Guzmit was proposed, it encountered an unprecedented amount of criticism.

Although final calculations proved that his and Uhlenbeck's theories were correct, Guzmit was indeed regarded as a heretic until the physics community came to a consensus.

In the first two months, there were even calls for them to be sent to the gallows.

Maybe it’s because of this experience.

After serving as the editor-in-chief of "Physical Review Letters", the famous "Physical Review Letters".

Guzmit actually has a high tolerance for many submissions and will not easily make too strong remarks.

For example, within the past two months.

He communicated for a long time with a British civil scientist who claimed to have overturned the wave-particle duality, and finally successfully made the civil scientist realize his mistake with his solid theoretical foundation.

It is said that the civilian scientist has given up on theoretical research to overturn wave-particle duality and started tinkering with perpetual motion machines.

Well, the specifics are not the point.

The point is that Guzmit has always believed that based on his experience, there is no paper in the world that would make him lose his composure.

but

At this moment, Guzmit realized that he was wrong.

Although he was telling himself to be calm in his heart, he couldn't help but slap the desk in front of him when he spoke:

"Mr. John, Holy Son and Holy Father, are you making an April Fool's joke on me?"

"On such a wonderful morning, instead of discussing the relationship between O-space and frame rate with Ms. Tila, you actually came over to tell me that those Chinese people have made breakthroughs in particle physics?"

"Are you kidding me? Do they know what particle physics is?"

Guzmit was indeed a little angry.

Not long ago, he was about to go fishing while there were no submissions to the journal, but his good friend and external review editor of "Physical Review Letters" John Crump suddenly came to the door.

After meeting, John excitedly handed over a paper and told Guzmit

This is the achievement achieved by the Chinese people in particle physics, and what they are exploring is the basic model!

Upon hearing these words, Guzmit's mouth reacted before his brain:

This is absolutely impossible!

Have the Chinese made a breakthrough in particle physics?

Are you kidding me?

That's theoretical physics!

Guzmit looked a bit groggy.

A blond man standing opposite him couldn't help but adjust the red scarf on his chest and said slowly:

"Mr. Guzmit, of course the Chinese know what particle physics is. No one knows China better than me."

"Don't forget that the discovery of the positron is inseparable from the Chinese people. The first antihyperon was discovered by Chinese scientists for the first time - before that, the entire physics community had been busy in vain for 27 years."

Guzmit's momentum suddenly stagnated.

I have to say that the two examples John gave are indeed striking.

The positron discovery he mentioned was the result achieved by Academician Zhao Zhongyao when he was studying abroad.

At that time, Zhao Zhongyao was studying at the California Institute of Technology, where he studied under Professor Millikan, the president of the school and Nobel Prize winner.

during an experiment.

Zhao Zhongyao discovered the abnormal absorption and special radiation produced by hard gamma rays when they pass through heavy matter.

So he wrote this important discovery into two papers, which were published in May and October 1930.

This was actually the earliest experimental evidence of the generation and annihilation process of electron-positron pairs, which was eventually perfected by Rutherford, and the Nobel Prize was awarded to Rutherford.

Another inverse superon was Wang Ganchang's contribution to Mao Xiong, and it was discovered just two years ago.

At that time, the paper co-signed by Wang Ganchang and the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna was still handled by Guzmit himself.

I don’t know if I knew I was wrong.

After hearing what John said.

Guzmit immediately coughed slightly, and his tone couldn't help but slow down a little:

"Mr. John, what I said before was indeed a bit impulsive. I admit that China does have some outstanding and even top talents in particle physics."

"However, this paper is not only written by Chinese people, but more importantly, the address to which it was sent - this is that country in the east!"

"Everyone knows that that country lacks the soil for theoretical physics talents to display their talents. As far as I know, many of the international students who returned to China have changed their jobs and started working in applied physics research."

"They have no references to foreign journals, and there are deep barriers to international results. More importantly, they do not have experimental equipment to conduct research."

Speaking of which.

Guzmit couldn't help but spread his hands towards John, shook his head and said:

"Mr. John, tell me how they discussed the underlying model?"

to be honest.

Guzmit is not the kind of scientist who is extremely hostile or discriminatory towards Orientals.

Although he participated in the Manhattan Project, he was actually a standard anti-war and pacifist.

When Zhao Zhongyao was studying abroad across the sea, Guzmit had a good relationship with him.

Later, Zhao Zhongyao stayed across the sea to collect information on nuclear weapons, and Guzmit acted as his guarantor and paid a guarantee fee of US$20,000. At that time, Guzmit's monthly salary was only US$1,200.

In addition, during his short tenure as a professor at Northwest University, Guzmit also admitted two Chinese students.

When the two returned home, he also sent some information. Although the information was eventually taken back by Jiaolou, this matter had nothing to do with Guzmit.

The real reason why he blurted out the phrase ‘impossible’ lies in the logic he said:

He knew very well that the Chinese mainland was full of waste and was not suitable for the development of theoretical physics.

Like a whale.

Once this dominant creature in the sea reaches the shore, no matter how invincible it is in the sea, it will inevitably end up stranded and die.

The same is true for those scientists in China today.

People like Zhao Zhongyao, Wang Ganchang, Lu Guangda, and Qian Wushi are very capable, but there is no room for them to develop in China.

As far as Guzmit knows.

At least 50% of those international students who returned to China changed their direction and switched from theoreticians to applied physicists, designing missiles, computers and other application equipment for their motherland.

So if the author of the paper was written by a Chinese working and studying across the sea, he would have some expectations.

But papers from China

But what made Guzmit stunned again.

John, standing opposite him, still did not show any expression of apology, but continued to smile:

"Mr. Guzmit, you are wrong again."

"I have sold a lot of English journals. Let's not discuss this matter for now. Let's talk about the most critical equipment."

"I'm afraid you don't know that China now has high-energy electrostatic accelerators."

"High-energy electrostatic accelerator?"

Guzmit stayed for a few seconds, then frowned:

"John, are you talking about the 2.5 MeV electrostatic accelerator that Zhao brought back to China from us?"

John shook his head:

"Of course not—Mr. Guzmit, you will know if you look at page 16 of the paper."

Guzmit glanced at him with furrowed eyebrows, picked up the paper on the table again, slowly turned to page 16 and started reading.

Less than half a minute later.

Guzmit's pupils suddenly shrank sharply, and even the left hand holding the paper shook violently, and the pages of the book made a sound of being rinsed.

There is no other reason why Guzmit lost his composure.

The page of the paper that John Gein asked him to read contained several high-level images of collision cloud chambers.

These collision images all have the radius of the deflection arc, with standard condensation nuclei formed after vapor ionization, and also include a small amount of electromagnetic showers.

Combined with some corresponding values ​​on the side, the entire report appears extremely clear.

At the same time, Guzmit relied on his attainments in particle physics to determine the approximate range of the collision at a glance:

Between 30MeV-40MeV!

But

As far as he knows.

The particle accelerator with the highest energy level in China today is nothing more than the 2.5 MeV electrostatic accelerator of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.

Think of this.

Guzmit couldn't help but raise his head and looked at John in surprise:

"John, what's going on?"

"How can the Chinese have such a magnitude of collision images? - It is at least above 30MeV!"

John gave him an apologetic expression:

"I'm sorry, Mr. Guzmit, I don't know the specific reason - you should know that although I know China better than anyone else, I have no business interactions with the Chinese."

"But I can confirm that these images are indeed from high-energy accelerators. After all, their data are too detailed."

Guzmit nodded subconsciously.

In addition to being the external review editor of "Physical Review Letters", John Crump is also the head of the MIT laboratory across the sea. His own scientific research ability is beyond doubt.

I was able to make a judgment just by looking at the images a few times. It took John longer to get the paper than it did for me, so it was normal to conclude that China had a high-energy accelerator.

This is the only explanation, otherwise it can't be that John was also involved in the transaction with China, right?

impossible.

So it's quick.

Guzmit returned his focus to this paper.

If China really has a high-energy accelerator

Not to mention how they produced the equipment, at least with this thing, they did have the qualifications to study particle models.

So Guzmit quickly straightened his expression, picked up his glasses from the table, put them on the bridge of his nose, and began to read the paper seriously from the beginning.

The first thing that caught Guzmit’s attention was the title of the paper:

"In-depth Exploration of Gauge Fields and Particle Models: Speculations and Phenomena on 'Metahadrons'."

That is.

In-depth exploration of gauge fields and particle models—speculations and phenomenon discussions about ‘meta-hadrons’.

Um.

Judging from the title, it does refer to a new model.

Then Guzmit lowered his gaze a little further and began to read the name of the author of the paper.

For someone like him, the editor-in-chief of Physical Review Letters.

usually.

He cares more about the author of the paper than the title of the paper.

If the author of the paper is just a newbie with little reputation, his tolerance for the content of the paper will be much lower.

But if he is a well-known boss in the industry, his expectations will skyrocket.

"ZhaoZhongYao, ZhuHongYuan, HuNing, WangGanChang, YangHe, LuGuangDa, LiJue, Chinese Donkey"

See the first seven names.

Guzmit's expression suddenly became serious.

There is no need to say more about Zhao Zhongyao, Wang Ganchang and Lu Guangda.

As long as they are practitioners of physics around the world, almost everyone has heard of these three names, which are equivalent to Mero in later generations.

Other than that.

Zhu Hongyuan, Hu Ning and Yang Heguzmit also heard about it.

Zhu Hongyuan is a top student in the Department of Physics at the University of Manchester in the UK. He studied under Guzmit's junior brother Thom Kaizer's boyfriend (that's right) Greenall. Greenall has missed this smart Chinese disciple a lot in the past few years. .

Hu Ning graduated from the California Institute of Technology. Although they have not met Guzmit, they have heard of this name.

Yang He's situation is similar, and he is also one of the top international students.

In the early years, Yang He also submitted an article to "Physical Review", the predecessor of "Physical Review Letters". Although it was not picked up, Guzmit also communicated with him several times.

As for the remaining Li Jue Guzmit, I really don't know. Maybe they are local experts from China - Zhao Zhongyao and the others have been back to China for eleven or two years, so it is very reasonable to train a few Chinese physicists.

But to be able to sign with these others, this Li Jue must be a scholar with a rich reserve of knowledge.

but

What the hell is that Chinese Donkey at the end?

Chinese donkey?

Was it a typo or was it intentional?

Guzmit scratched his hair in confusion, pondered for a few seconds and found that he still couldn't figure it out, then ignored the question.

Whether it was a typo or other reasons, the first few names alone are significant enough - after confirming that China has high-energy accelerators.

So Guzmit continued to read.

[As is well known, at the beginning of this year, Galman and Neyman proposed the “octople method“ for classifying hadrons using the SU (3) symmetry of strong interactions].

[This classification is very similar to the classification of elements (atoms) in the Mendeleev periodic table. Mathematically, they correspond to different representations of SU (3) symmetric groups, which means that all discovered hadrons at that time can be correctly filled in the corresponding SU (3) group representation graph. The eight fold classification well illustrates the regularity of static properties such as spin, parity, charge, singularity, and mass of hadrons that have been discovered]

At the beginning.

Guzmit still held the cat poop coffee he had just brewed in his left hand, tasting it while reading the paper.

But look at it.

Guzmit gradually loosened his hand holding the handle of the coffee cup.

Two minutes later.

Guzmit changed the posture of reading the newspaper with one hand to laying it flat on the table.

At the same time, he stretched out his fingertips, scratched the paper with his fingernails, and read word for word.

Mentioned earlier.

In the first sixty years of the twentieth century, particle physics was in its standard pioneering zone.

At first, people realized the existence of electrons, photons, and atomic nuclei. Later, in 1932, it was discovered that protons and neutrons are the components of the atomic nucleus.

In order to explain why positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons are enough to form a stable atomic nucleus, why the electromagnetic repulsion between protons does not cause the atomic nucleus to fall apart.

Neon physicist Hideki Yukawa proposed the concept of mesons.

This particle was later discovered (1947) in cosmic rays as the pion.

Then came 1947.

Two British scientists, Rochester and Butler, discovered exotic particles, which are composite particles such as hadrons and hyperons.

In this era, the number of hadrons discovered by the scientific community exceeds 200.

Among the more than 200 hadrons, not one of them has a final state particle that is a hyperon.

but

In this paper, Zhao Zhongyao and others attached a data table of final state hyperons.

Plus the spray column picture attached to the earliest page.

Suddenly.

A thought came to Guzmit's mind:

Could it be that.

What did those Chinese people really discover?

So he took a deep breath and continued reading.

On the last page of the final state hypersub table, Zhao Zhongyao added a derivation process:

[The definition of symmetry is well known in physics: If an infinitesimal transformation δ^ is a symmetric transformation, then there is a K such that δ^L=dK. 】

[If δ^1L=dK1, δ^2L=dK2, that is, the binary group (δ^1, K1), (δ^2, K2), then there is (c1δ^1+c2δ^2, c1K1+c2K2)δ ^Satisfy the conditions on the boundary so that the boundary terms in the integral of parts disappear. For any two non-intersecting closed subsets C1, C2M in space and time, for (δ^1, K1), you can always find (δ^2, K2 ), let (δ^1, K1) = (δ^2, K2), x∈C1】

[But (δ^2, K2) = 0, the third condition of x∈C2 is the most critical. It means that any symmetry transformation can always be decomposed into the sum of multiple subsets, which depicts locality. 】

[The first condition is also true for global transformation. We will see later that the second condition ensures that the charge defined by the transformation is 0. This is also a manifestation of locality, that is, the field at infinity does not participate in the transformation. The global transformation always changes the field at infinity, so its corresponding charge is not 0]

[Local symmetry δ^∈WTF. Here, δ^∈TF is a tangent vector field. The Lie bracket [δ^1, δ^2]∈W of the tangent vector field can be defined. Therefore, the local symmetry constitutes a closed Lie algebra G. According to Frobenius theorem, W spanned by all local symmetries is integrable, and the integrator manifold can be defined]

If Xu Yun was present and saw this content, he would probably pat Guzmit on the shoulder with emotion and say, "Brother, I understand you."

after all

When he saw this derivation, Xu Yun's jaw almost dropped to the ground in shock.

That's right.

This derivation is not the content of the first version of the paper, but a new result added by Zhao Zhongyao and others:

The original content of the first version was mainly based on the first startup data of the tandem accelerator, and about 20% needed to be filled in by subsequent experiments.

Not long ago.

After the organization approved a batch of electric energy, Zhao Zhongyao and others conducted several impact experiments.

And during a certain impact experiment, they discovered a brand new phenomenon.

That is.

U(1) local symmetry.

There is an iron law in later particle physics, which is that all fermions must satisfy the local symmetry of U(1).

Specifically:

After the following transformation is performed on the spinor field corresponding to the fermion, the form of the Lagrangian density remains unchanged.

ψ(x)→eiα(x)ψ(x) The transformation here includes α(x), a function related to coordinates, so the transformation rules at different points are different, which is called "local symmetry".

But the problem is that in this era, there is a problem with the local symmetry of fermions.

Because its original Lagrangian is L=ψ(iγμμm)ψ, looking at this expression, it is easy to find that this Lagrangian is not conserved under the transformation of U(1).

The reason is that the derivative of a covariate, like general relativity, is not actually covariant.

Zhao Zhongyao and others discovered that an electron showed a very strange quantitative trajectory after a certain special deflection angle during the collision.

The mathematical expression of this trajectory is Dμ=μ+ieAμ L=ψ(iγμDμm)ψ Aμ, that is, a vector field appears under the transformation of the Poincaré group.

And this field

Just enough to fix the covariance of the derivative.

This is actually a question that will be answered thirteen years later. Unexpectedly, Zhao Zhongyao and the others made mathematical corrections by chance.

More importantly.

U(1) local symmetry requires the covariant derivative Dμ and the spinor field ψ to be combined to construct a conserved quantity that can be added to the Lagrangian.

Although Dμ is conserved, it is only an operator acting on a field.

Therefore, if you want to obtain a conserved scalar, you must simplify the commutator of two covariant derivatives.

Mathematically, this happens to be in line with quarks. To be precise, it is the normative index of the meta-hadron model.

Therefore, the paper that Guzmit saw at this time was more organized and convincing than the first draft that Xu Yun saw earlier.

"."

A full half hour passed.

Guzmit just put down the pen in his hand.

He looked at the densely packed manuscript papers in front of him and breathed out softly.

Then Guzmit pondered for a moment, picked up the phone from the table and dialed a number:

"Ms. Venn, did Mr. Murray come to the editorial office today? Very good. Please inform him to come to my office."

"If he finds a reason not to come, just tell him that Mr. John is going to jump off the building."

Mr. John:

"????"

After hanging up the phone.

Guzmit didn't say much, but just waited on his seat.

More than ten minutes passed.

There was a knock on the door outside Guzmit's office:

"Mr. Guzmit! Are you looking for me?"

Guzmit quickly responded:

"Please come in!"

Guzmit just finished speaking.

Crunch——

The door to the office was pushed open, and a middle-aged man with a big red nose walked in quickly.

After seeing Mr. John standing aside, the big-nosed middle-aged man was stunned for two seconds:

"Mr. Qu Runpu, haven't you jumped off the building yet?"

Mr. John:

"."

Upon seeing this, Guzmit coughed slightly and handed the paper on his desk to the other party:

"Murray, let's not say anything else. Just take a look at this."

The middle-aged man with the big nose is obviously the kind of person who has a clear sense of boundaries. He knows how to give up when something is good. Hearing this, he immediately took the paper and started reading it.

Guzmit and Mr. John waited quietly aside, no one said a word.

Although both of them can be regarded as well-known physicists in the West, the middle-aged man in front of them must be as good as them.

No.

In a sense.

This "junior" named Murray Gelman is even stronger than the two of them!

Of course.

Strong here does not refer to ability, but to potential.

Entered Yale at the age of 14.

At the age of 24, he proposed the concept of strange quantum numbers.

At the age of 26, he became the youngest tenured professor at Caltech.

Now just 32 years old, Gell-Mann has already made his mark in the world of theoretical physics, and many people regard him as the next generation leader of quantum field theory.

After receiving the paper.

Gelman began to read the content seriously.

The eight-fold method mentioned at the beginning of the paper first made him look happy.

after all

This is a theory that Gell-Mann is quite proud of, and it was not until this year that he formally summarized it into a theory of strong action symmetry.

It is obviously gratifying for any scientist to see the results of his research at the beginning of this paper.

But soon.

As you read more.

Gell-Mann's expression was just like Guzmit's earlier. Every few seconds, the heaviness on his face would become heavier.

"Final state superon."

"The spray column phenomenon."

"Covariant process of U(1) local symmetry"

"Spontaneous loss of phase"

Gellman read the more than 30-page paper for a full hour before letting out a sigh of relief.

Looking at Gelman who was in a daze, Guzmit subconsciously looked at John and asked:

"Murray, what do you think of this paper?"

Guzmit's words were like a heavy hammer, instantly bringing Gelman's mind back to reality.

Gulu——

I saw him swallowing hard and said:

"Mr. Guzmit, I will use a Chinese saying that Mr. Zhao Zhongyao taught me back then to describe it."

"It's like clearing the clouds and seeing the sun, which makes me enlightened."

Then, before Guzmit could speak, Gelman said quickly:

"To tell you the truth, Mr. Guzmit, I have been thinking about some issues with the basic model since last year."

"For example, when I proposed the SU(3) eight-fold method theory, I skipped the basic representation 3, which has always made me feel uneasy."

"Because it is the basic representation for deriving other representations, it should have physical meaning - the most logical explanation for the basic representation is that it should correspond to the triplet state of a basic particle, and other particles can be constructed from it."

"But I have never been able to find a known particle to fill it in, but now that I saw this paper, I realized that fractional charges are actually feasible."

Speaking of which.

Gelman couldn't help but glance at the paper in his hand.

Basic representation 3.

This has been one of Gelman's obsessions over the years.

Students who know the history of physics should know this.

Back in 1949.

Fermi and Yang Zhenning once proposed the hypothesis that pions are composed of nucleons and anti-nucleons. They believed that nucleons were more basic particles to explain the composition of some other particles.

But this theory cannot explain the composition of exotic particles, so it is not widely accepted.

1956.

Neon physicist Shoichi Sakata further proposed that the next level of elementary particles is p, n, Λ, which is the Sakata model.

The Sakata model can well explain the composition of various mesons, but it encounters difficulties in explaining the composition of baryons. For example, it cannot exclude pnΛ particles (S=-1) that do not exist in nature.

Gell-Mann used the Yang-Mills theory to describe the strong interaction based on the above two. After understanding the Lie group, he realized that the eight generators he studied corresponded to the SU (3) group, so he decided to proceed from here. Get started.

But this way.

A new question arises:

The basic representation of the SU(3) group is 3-dimensional, and Sakata once used this representation to represent three particles (p, n, Λ).

Gell-Mann did not believe that these three particles were elementary particles through research, but he was not sure what this basic representation should be.

But he was unwilling to give up SU(3) symmetry, so he simply skipped this basic representation and turned to the next direction, which is the 8-dimensional representation.

He found that eight baryons with spin 1/2 and positive parity were just suitable for his eight-fold method scheme.

So Gell-Mann proposed the eight-fold method, and it was officially widely accepted with the discovery of Ω-particles.

But the skipped basic expression 3 has always been like a thorn in Gelman's heart.

It's not that he has trouble sleeping and eating, but it does often involve a lot of his mind.

But now with the emergence of this paper, Gell-Mann suddenly discovered a new world.

The paper mentions a 'bootstrap method', which introduces isospin symmetry, which makes fractional charges a physical possibility.

That is to say, when ν=1/3, on average, each electron is divided into three magnetic fluxes.

At this time, there are many possibilities for the combination of magnetic flux and electrons.

From the perspective of the lowest energy of the system, one electron should be divided into three magnetic fluxes.

Not an exaggeration.

When Gell-Mann saw this theory, his world became brighter.

At the same time, the so-called meta-hadron model, in addition to its extremely perfect physical phenomena and mathematical derivation, is also quite consistent with Gell-Mann's taste in terms of personal perception.

Of course.

If Xu Yun could see through Gelman's inner thoughts at this time, he would probably spread his hands helplessly.

Suitable for Gelman's taste.

This is almost a given.

after all

Many of the metahadron models optimized by Xu Yun and Zhao Zhongyao were inspired by the quark model proposed by Gell-Mann.

This is equivalent to traveling back in time to 2006 and showing Chen Dong "Shading the Sky". It's strange that he doesn't like it.

"correct."

Then Gelman suddenly thought of something and asked Guzmit urgently:

"Mr. Guzmit, which laboratory wrote this paper?"

"Caltech? Batavia? Lawrence Berkeley? Or CERN led by Mr. Heisenberg in Germany?"

When Guzmit gave Gellman the paper, he deliberately removed the cover with the author's signature. Therefore, although Gellman had read the content of the paper, he did not know who the author of the paper was.

The names that came out of his mouth at this time were all top laboratories in the world, and most of them contained one or several top bosses.

For example, the current head of theoretical physics at Caltech is Richard Feynman, who would win the Nobel Prize four years later.

In the era when Xu Yun traveled back in time, almost everyone in "Feynman's Lectures on Physics" was familiar with theoretical physics.

Batavia.

It is the predecessor of the future Fermilab.

It will be the future largest high-energy physics laboratory across the sea and the second largest in the world. Polycarp Kusch, the 1955 Nobel Prize winner, currently works here.

The remaining Lawrence Berkeley and CERN are also top-notch institutions, some of which even Gell-Mann would look up to.

Come to Gelman.

If anyone can write this kind of paper, then the answer must be one of these.

But what soon made him look shocked.

Guzmit shook his head firmly and rejected his guess:

"Mr. Murray, you guessed wrong. The compilers of the paper were not the institutions you mentioned."

"In fact, the author of this paper is Chinese."

"Chinese?"

Gelman was stunned for a moment, and subconsciously blurted out a name:

"Is it Yang? Or Li?"

The Yang and Li mentioned by Gell-Mann naturally refer to Yang Zhenning and Li Zhengdao, the two most famous Chinese people in the physics world across the sea.

However, under Gelman's gaze.

Guzmit once again gave a negative reply:

"No, they are Chinese native to China, maybe with a donkey."

Note:

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