Into Unscientific

Chapter 405: A Day Entered in the History of Human Science (Part 2)

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inside the laboratory.

Looking at Lu Chaoyang with a serious face.

Xu Yun swallowed heavily, then turned his head to look at everyone in the room.

Zhang Han, Tang Fei, Guo Ping, and even Ye Zhi, the tool man in charge of ordering takeout, had solemn expressions mixed with shock.

Then he looked at Lu Chaoyang again, and his voice became hoarse:

"Professor Lu, what you said is true?"

Lu Chaoyang gave a wry smile when he heard the words, and handed the document to Xu Yun:

"See for yourself."

Xu Yun lifted the blanket off his body, took the document, sat up straight and read it.

"Secondary Divergence Parameter 3.445"

"The orientation of the column graph is at right angles to the parallel orientation of the electron"

"The difference in parity is 226.5 points/billion."

at last.

Xu Yun's eyes stopped on an item marked as U group.

Below this project is divided into four columns: U1, SU2, SU3 and SL (2, C).

Among them, SL(2, C) shows [+], and under the U1, SU2 and SU3 columns are

【X】.

See this situation.

Xu Yun suddenly stopped breathing.

It was introduced a long time ago.

In the current particle theory, the particles that transmit "force" are all bosons with spin one or two.

So what kind of boson is transferred is called what kind of force.

There are several kinds of these bosons, so we need to classify them.

The standard of classification is symmetry, which is represented by groups in mathematics.

Since the theories describing forces are called "gauge field theories", these groups are called gauge groups.

Generally speaking.

The bosons discovered so far can be divided into four groups, which correspond to the four basic forces mentioned above.

Respectively, the U1 group corresponds to the electromagnetic force, and corresponds to the photon.

The SU2 group corresponds to the weak force, and corresponds to the W, Z bosons,

SU3 corresponds to the transport strong interaction, corresponding to gluons.

And the SL(2, C) group is corresponding to the transfer gravitational interaction, and it is corresponding to the graviton.

In addition to the graviton, the other three particles have been found.

See here.

Maybe some children's boots will say that I understand, what Xu Yun and the others discovered is graviton.

Unfortunately, not.

Because the graviton will also participate in the electromagnetic interaction in theory, and because its spin is 2, the limit energy scale is involved in the field theory, which obviously does not meet the current experimental conditions.

So what does this report mean?

The first thing to emphasize is that

These four groups can coexist in the actual situation, which is the situation that a certain particle has to participate in multiple functions at the same time.

Here is an inappropriate but understandable example:

An author who is hoisted by the reader, the rope interacts with him electromagnetically, gravity interacts with him gravitationally, and the small universe in his body also interacts weakly.

Therefore, when these four groups detect certain particle characteristics, the report generally shows that the effect of a certain column is strong or weak, rather than 0.

For example, if a particle is in the U1 group, that is, the degree of electromagnetic interaction is relatively weak, it will be represented by [-].

Strong is [+].

If the corresponding behavior does not occur, then [X].

All the particles at present will participate in the gravitational interaction, and therefore, under the gravitational interaction, that is, under the SL(2, C) group, there will only be 【-】or 【+】.

As for strong and weak forces, [X] can be seen occasionally.

For example, Lepton.

And U1 group, that is, the column of electromagnetic interaction, only one particle will appear 【X】.

That's the neutrino.

And just today.

In front of Xu Yun and the others, another brand new U1 group [X] particle appeared.

More critically.

Lone particle, its movement mode is 'flicker'.

That is to say, its kinetic energy is much smaller than the corresponding static energy - this sentence was once explained by a fat man running 100 meters.

On this basis.

Lone point particles also have electrical neutrality and no static mass definition. That is, there is no entity in the microscopic world, so they only participate in the gravitational interaction.

In the current scientific community, this kind of particle or substance has a special title.

Think here.

Gollum—

Xu Yun swallowed, and looked at Lu Chaoyang in shock:

"So. Professor Lu, we discovered a kind of... dark matter?"

Lu Chaoyang took a deep breath and nodded vigorously:

"That's right, according to the results from the teacher, the probability is infinitely close to 100%."

Xu Yun stared blankly at the document in his hand, and after a long while, he sat down on his seat.

yes

I should have thought of it long ago.

Doesn't an undetectable particle meet the definition of dark matter?

dark matter.

This is something that has spread widely, but many people don't know much about it.

The prototype of dark matter can be traced back to 1922.

At that time, the astronomer Kaptan indirectly deduced that there might be invisible matter around the star system through the movement of the star system.

Then in 1933.

Astrophysicist Zwicky used the spectral redshift method to measure the motion speed and state of each star cluster in the Coma Cluster.

It was found that the velocity dispersion of galaxies is too high. If the gravitational force generated by the visible mass of galaxies alone cannot bind these galaxies in the galaxy clusters, these galaxy clusters will fall apart.

However, the real "battle of fame" for dark matter took place in 1970.

At that time, a female professor named Vera Rubin, who had the same name as Qidian’s well-known rich woman, made a measurement of the rotation curve of the Andromeda galaxy, the neighbor of the Milky Way, which is the galaxy M31.

The so-called galaxy rotation curve refers to the function curve of the rotation speed of a star at a certain distance from the galaxy around the center of the galaxy.

In human terms, it is revolution speed.

If the gravity of the galaxy is only provided by visible matter, then it can be calculated that the rotation curve should show such an effect:

The farther a star is from the center of a galaxy, the slower it should spin.

However, when Vera Rubin made observations of the Andromeda Galaxy, she discovered that .

The actual rotation curve is beyond a certain distance.

The farther the star is from the center of the galaxy, the rotation speed and interior remain almost constant.

What does this mean?

Students who have attended high school physics should know it.

At the same distance from the center of the galaxy.

V1 (which is the slower speed it should theoretically have) and V2 (the rotational speed Vera Rubin observed), both have very different centrifugal forces.

The former is low and the latter is high.

So if the gravity of the galaxy is provided only by visible matter, then theoretically, the star rotating with V2 will be thrown out of the galaxy.

unless

Those stars are attracted by something that cannot be seen, and thus are bound in the galaxy.

That is, the actual mass of the galaxy is greater than the mass calculated by observation.

This is the root of all evil in dark matter.

By 2022, the evidence for dark matter will be abundant.

For example, the total mass of galaxies (or galaxy clusters) obtained by multiple independent measurement methods is much more than the mass of ordinary matter in them.

Another example is the observation of the cosmic microwave background radiation.

Another example is the simulation of the number of galaxy clusters formed at different cosmic ages, etc.

Another thing to mention is.

The current calculation method for the mass of galaxies is very mature, and there will not be too much error. (For details, see Chapter 281)

so what.

Those conditions are real, and to explain these anomalies, one has two options:

One is to stick to the known gravitational theory—that is, the correctness of general relativity, but introduce some kind of electrically neutral matter to provide an additional gravitational source.

This kind of particle only participates in gravitation but not in electromagnetic interaction, so it cannot be detected by electromagnetic means, so it is called "dark matter".

The second is not to introduce the concept of dark matter, but to modify the theory of gravity so that the revised theory conforms to the astronomical measurement results in the large-scale structure of the universe.

Particle physicists choose option one.

Because after all, it is more economical and time-tested to introduce new particles, and the introduction of many earlier models was later proved to be correct, such as the Higgs particle.

But general relativity scientists mostly prefer option two.

Because they can eat and grow happily again.

At present, the number of scientists who hold the first view, that is, the existence of dark matter, is much higher than the latter.

For example, our country launched the Wukong dark matter detection satellite to explore the sky, and there are many related projects abroad.

Now the more accurate statement in the scientific community is this:

Of the total mass-energy of the universe, only 4.9% is visible matter.

That is to say, galaxies, nebula dust, stars, planets, etc. that we can see only account for 4.9% of the total mass energy of the universe, and 95.1% is 26.8% dark matter and 68.3% dark energy—this is not Minkoha, It is a relatively unified view of cosmology today. (For example, this article 10.1126/science.1146676 of "Science" and this article org/10.1093/mnras/staa3016)

But it needs to be clear.

Although there are a lot of theoretical evidence to support the existence of dark matter, the probability of the existence of dark matter is infinitely greater than that of "graviton" - the infinite times here is not an exaggeration, but it is true.

But up to now, human beings still have not discovered any kind of dark matter that is not a generalized concept.

This thing is a bit like a black hole in a sense:

Everyone knows that black holes exist, but it was not until the event horizon telescope photographed the accretion disk in 2019 that humans have actually confirmed the existence of black holes for the first time.

Before that, the physics and astronomy circles could only use phenomena to show the existence of black holes.

The same goes for dark matter.

Before the discovery of neutrino oscillations, the scientific community had always believed that neutrinos were most likely dark matter.

But after the discovery of neutrino oscillations, this possibility was passed.

Because neutrino oscillations prove that neutrinos move relativistically when galaxies are formed in the universe, if they are the main components of dark matter, they will hinder the formation of galaxies and even the large-scale structures of the universe, so they cannot be the main components of dark matter.

Today neutrinos are classified as part of hot dark matter, that is, dark matter that travels at close to the speed of light in a vacuum and does not interact with electromagnetism.

This is as if the theory of evolution has been looking for the standard "human ape", that is, the evolutionary intermediate between primitive man and ape.

But after searching and searching, they couldn't find orangutans, so they had no choice but to classify chimpanzees into the concepts of "half-step orangutans", "apes at the peak of Dzogchen", and "can be hit by orangutans without dying".

That is to say, hard calculations can be included, but it has no real meaning.

Today, there are only five particle models that theoretically meet the conditions of dark matter:

Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs),

axion,

inert neutrinos,

supermassive particles,

Ultralight vector particles.

Among the most interesting are WIMPs and supermassive particles.

WIMP is also called cold dark matter. If such particles existed, they would have been produced in large quantities at the beginning of the Big Bang.

Then after the temperature of the universe is lowered to the mass energy scale of the WIMP particles, they rapidly annihilate each other.

In the end, the remaining part remains to this day and becomes dark matter.

Xu Yun met an old professor in the Academy of Sciences who liked fairy tales very much, and he even gave WIMP a nickname with a very fairy-like flavor:

road sign.

This is also the model with the most researchers and the highest topicality.

As for supermassive particles? They are also called Godzilla particles and ear root particles.

It refers to a class of particles with a mass greater than the inflation energy scale of about 10^13 GeV.

The operating mechanism of this thing is not the point, but once it is really discovered, the fun will be great:

Because this thing can be produced by the "freeze in" mechanism of the annihilation of other hot particles, it is a kind of propagator of graviton.

So the discovery of supermassive particles is almost like buying one and getting one free for discovering gravitons.

Since none of these five kinds of particles can be found at present, this phenomenon is also referred to as "five sons can't work" in the industry.

Of course.

In addition to these five models, the primordial black hole is also a candidate for celestial dark matter.

This kind of black hole is very different from the black hole formed by the collapse of stars. It is not formed by the evolution of astrophysical processes, but formed directly from the density fluctuations of the very early universe.

Students who have participated in the Big Bang should know it.

In the very early days of the birth of the universe, cosmic inflation brought the original density disturbance to the universe.

If the density perturbations in some regions of space-time are large enough.

Then as the event horizon expands, it will contain enough matter to directly collapse this space-time region into a black hole, which is the so-called primordial black hole.

well known.

The larger the mass of the black hole, the slower the evaporation rate.

It can be seen from the calculation that the primordial black hole with a mass greater than 10^9 tons can still survive to this day after 13.8 billion years of evolution, thus serving as dark matter.

One of the purposes of future gravitational wave detection experiments in space, such as LISA or my country's Taiji project, is also to search for this kind of black hole.

Just didn't expect it.

Dark matter, which the entire scientific community is eagerly looking forward to, was unexpectedly discovered like this?

This is no less than the treasure of One Piece.

Now look back carefully along the timeline.

There is no definition of static mass, no entity, and no interaction with any particles in the non-ground state.

Even during ground state processing not so long ago.

Xu Yun and the others also found that the results of super high-energy photons are not so obvious, and the distribution of constant mass is irregular.

And one of the important characteristics of dark matter is that the kinetic energy is much smaller than the corresponding static energy.

It can be said like this.

Except that it has not been determined whether the lonely point particle is left over from 13.8 billion years of evolution.

All the properties displayed by the solitary point particles before are all the characteristics of dark matter that are so standard that they can no longer be standard!

Should it be said that the crowd looked for him thousands of times, or should it be said that it was unintentional?

Think here.

In Xu Yun's mind, the original formula for deriving the trajectory of the lone particle was discovered:

4D/B2=4(√(D1D2))2/[2D0]2=√(D1D2)/[D0]=(1-η2)≤1

{qjik}K(Z/t)=∑(jik=S)∏(jik=q)(Xi)(ωj)(rk); (j=0,1,2,3...;i=0,1, 2, 3...; k=0, 1, 2, 3...)

{qjik}K(Z/t)=[xaK(Z±S±N±p), xbK(Z±S±N±p),…, xpK(Z±S±N±p),…}∈{ DH}K(Z±S±N±p)

(1-ηf2)(Z±3)=[{K(Z±3)√D}/{R}]K(Z±M±N±3)=∑(ji=3)(ηa+ηb+ηc )K(Z±N±3);

(1-η2)(Z±(N=5)±3): (K(Z±3)√120)K/[(1/3)K(8+5+3)]K(Z±1) ≤1(Z±(N=5)±3);

W(x)=(1-η[xy]2)K(Z±S±N±p)/t{0, 2}K(Z±S±N±p)/t{W(x0)}K (Z±S±N±p)/t

That original formula can be divided into three parts, or deciphered in stages.

Among them, the orbit of the solitary point particle is only the first third of the deciphering results, and there are two thirds of the remaining two thirds. Xu Yun still has no clue.

It seems.

The value of the original formula far exceeded Xu Yun's expectations.

In fact, after the 1850 dungeon ended, Xu Yun had always been vaguely puzzled:

Compared with 1850, the influence of what I did in 1100 should be greater.

Let alone history.

It changed the demise of the Northern Song Dynasty, and allowed the Chinese territory to expand all the way to Europe, almost conquering the world.

In terms of science and technology, microscopes and telescopes were invented, which unraveled the prelude to the microscopic field a thousand years in advance.

But in terms of rewards, the 1100 copy seems to be much inferior to the 1850 copy.

Although the 1100 copy rewarded a national fortune, the Yongle Grand Ceremony was also rewarded in 1850-this thing is not like the jade seal that needs to go through a specific task to activate, but can be dug out and opened to eat.

So the two are barely equal.

In addition to the National Games.

The gravity gradient meter, MR technology, hemostatic gelatin, computing power module, and microbial battery rewarded in the 1850 copy are undoubtedly much more than the technical rewards of the 1100 copy.

It's just that Xu Yun has never been very clear about the specific judgment logic of the halo, so he can only bury this doubt in his heart.

now it seems

Perhaps the most valuable reward for 1100 copies is not technology, but

The original formula that was too complicated to understand.

One-third of it discovered dark matter, so what about the remaining two-thirds?

At least from a mathematical point of view.

The difficulty of the latter two thirds is more than ten times higher than that of the first third.

I'm afraid that's the real treasure.

Bao Buqi, maybe maybe maybe maybe roughly guessing that after all the deciphering is completed, the graviton can really be created?

Of course.

These are Xu Yun's conjectures, without any actual evidence to support them.

Compared with the original formula.